Deux géants de la philosophie médiévale

This episode of "Philosopher View" brings together two prominent figures of medieval philosophy: Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican friar and Doctor of Holy Scripture, and Averroes (known in Latin as Avennes), a grand qadi of Seville and influential commentator on Aristotle. Despite Averroes preceding Aquinas by a century and Aquinas having written a treatise against Averroists, the program aims to foster a discussion between these "antagonistic figures." The conversation begins by exploring the importance of Aristotle in medieval thought. Both Aquinas and Averroes acknowledge the profound influence of Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle, on their respective intellectual traditions. Aquinas, a Christian, states that "all truth, whoever said it, comes from the Holy Spirit," implying divine inspiration for Aristotle. Averroes, a Muslim, emphasizes the collective nature of knowledge, urging scholars to draw from predecessors regardless of their religion. The transmission of Greek texts to the West is highlighted as a crucial historical development. Following Alexander the Great's conquests, Greek culture spread, with Alexandria becoming a major intellectual hub. The expansion of Islam in the 7th century led to the translation and dissemination of these texts through the Greco-Arabic translation movement, peaking in 9th-century Baghdad. This period, often called the Golden Age of Islam, saw philosophers like Alkindi, Alfarabi, Avicenna, Algazali, and Averroes, alongside scientists like Al-Khwarizmi and Alhazen. Averroes discusses the challenges posed by Al-Ghazali's "The Incoherence of the Philosophers," which aimed to refute Aristotelian philosophy. Averroes countered this in his "The Incoherence of the Incoherence," arguing that reason can indeed address metaphysical questions like the eternity of the world and the nature of God, contrary to Al-Ghazali's claims. Averroes recounts his experience with Caliph Abu Yusuf Ya'qub, a "philosopher caliph" who encouraged open discussion on these complex topics. However, after the Caliph's death, Averroes faced condemnation for heresy and had his books burned. Despite this, his works were later appreciated in the West. The reception of Greek texts in Latin Christendom is described as a gradual process. For much of the Middle Ages, Latin Christians had limited access to Greek sources. From the 11th century onwards, and especially in the 12th century, Aristotelian and other Greek texts began to arrive in Latin, often translated from Arabic. This influx of knowledge, facilitated by the Reconquista in Spain, spurred an intellectual renewal known as the 12th-century Renaissance. The example of Ptolemy's "Almagest" illustrates the linguistic journey of these texts from Greek to Arabic, and then to Latin. Thomas Aquinas recounts his student days at the University of Paris, where he was nicknamed "the mute ox" due to his reserved nature. His teacher, Albertus Magnus, recognized his intellect, famously predicting his future influence. Aquinas achieved his Master of Theology at a young age, requiring special papal permission. He later returned to Paris to confront a growing "disorder" caused by "Averroists" who, he felt, misused Aristotle to defend "absurd and dangerous theses." This led to the condemnation of Averroist teachings by the Bishop of Paris. The core of the disagreement between Aquinas and Averroes lies in their conception of the relationship between philosophy and faith. Aquinas espouses the view of "philosophia ancilla theologiae" (philosophy as the servant of theology), where reason can illuminate revealed truths but must remain subordinate to faith. He argues that philosophy's role is to serve religion, not to question its revealed doctrines. This framework, known as Scholasticism, is characterized by meticulous argumentation, as exemplified by the structure of Aquinas's "Summa Theologica." Averroes, in contrast, presents a different view in his "Decisive Discourse on the Agreement between Philosophy and Religious Law." He argues that philosophy is not only permissible but recommended, even obligatory, for those capable of it, as it deepens the knowledge of God through the examination of nature. He distinguishes between three audiences: the "crowd" (convinced by rhetoric), theologians (convinced by dialectic), and philosophers (convinced by demonstration). Averroes contends that philosophical demonstration leads to absolute certainty and that truth cannot contradict truth. Therefore, apparent contradictions between philosophy and sacred texts necessitate reinterpreting the literal meaning of those texts. This leads to the controversial concept of "double truth," which Aquinas attributes to the Averroists. Averroes vehemently denies this, asserting that there is only one truth. He believes that reason, through demonstrative means, establishes truths that necessarily align with sacred texts. If there's an apparent conflict, it's the sacred text that requires reinterpretation to conform to philosophical demonstration. This perspective places reason above theology, a notion deemed quite modern. The discussion then touches upon proofs for God's existence. Aquinas outlines five arguments, including those based on motion, causality, contingency, degrees of being, and the order of the world. He dismisses Anselm of Canterbury's ontological proof (based on the definition of God as "that than which nothing greater can be conceived") as unconvincing and too abstract, preferring empirical and metaphysical evidence. Aquinas's preferred argument is the "third voice," concerning contingency and necessity, which concludes the existence of a necessary being. He also discusses the "first unmoved mover" argument derived from Aristotle. A significant point of contention arises regarding the "unity of the intellect," a thesis derived from Aristotle and championed by Averroists like Siger de Brabant. This thesis, which suggests a single, numerically identical intellect for all humans, was condemned by the Bishop of Paris in 1270. Aquinas strongly opposed this, viewing it as a threat to personal immortality and salvation. He argues that if there's only one shared intellect, personal salvation and the concept of individual reward or punishment after death become problematic. Aquinas emphasizes the importance of personal immortality, as evidenced by his detailed discussions on the resurrection of the flesh. The condemnation of 13 theses in 1270, and a later condemnation of 219 theses in 1277 (which even targeted some of Aquinas's own ideas), highlights the Church's selective and often cautious reception of Aristotelianism. The idea that the Church universally embraced Aristotle before the scientific revolution is debunked. Towards the end, Aquinas reflects on his monumental "Summa Theologica," stating that after a mystical experience, "everything I have written seems like straw to me." This led him to abandon his writing, leaving the work unfinished. He died shortly after, and his ultimate fate—whether personal immortality, merging into a universal intellect, or cessation of existence—is left to faith. The episode concludes with a promotional segment for a fictional Late Show-style program featuring 17th-century philosophers. The first episode, with Descartes as the guest, is funded, and the team is aiming for a second episode featuring Thomas Hobbes, focusing on political philosophy and the Treaty of Westphalia. The speaker expresses hope for further episodes with Spinoza and a mystery guest. The final "Philosopher View" episode is announced to shift focus from theology to a more modern, 17th-century theme.